Creative thinkers are unafraid to try new things even at the risk of failure.They own the ability to think about something in novel ways and to come up with unconventional solutions to problems.

There will be plenty of room to play, to be creative within the confines of the Critical Thinking model.  The best papers play, take risks, amalgamate the  creative with the critical.  Yes!  Mind-meld.  As stated above, we use our creative abilities to come up with many solutions and our critical abilities to determine which solution ends up in print.

The big question:  Do we defy the crowd or please the crowd? The big answer:  Why not both?

 Let's take a look at how we can balance the creative right brain and the critical left brain.                                    

Appeals: Logos, Pathos, Ethos, or How to Blend the Critical with the Creative.

Aristotle realized there were three kinds of Appeals in arguments:
Logos (logic), appeal to reason;                 
Pathos (compassion, the heart), appeal to emotion;
Ethos (character or ethics), appeal to character (Aristotle's favorite, by the way).

We use these appeals to structure an argument, yet like a hot spice, we don't use too much of one over the other.  For example, we want our essay based on Logos or logic, but too much evidence and logic will cause the reader to fall asleep.  Let's face it: I don't care how smart you are, ten lines of statistics and you're counting sheep.  

So, we've done our research.  We got our facts together.  Now, let's play.  To shake it up a little, we add some pathos.  We might offer an interesting anecdote that appeals to the heart.  If I write that 74% of all hit-and-run accidents are caused by drunken drivers, I appeal to the Logos or reasoning part of the reader (the head, evidence, facts, statistics).   But when I add a personal story of an innocent boy who was sitting on his bicycle when a drunken English teacher in a 1984 Mustang careened down the road, hitting the boy, never bothering to stop, I will have appealed to the Pathos or the tenderness of the reader (the heart) to balance out the Logos. 
                                                                         
Ethos is the shade of appeal we need to keep things fair, offering both sides of the issue, doing the research needed to show a sense of integrity, veracity, and impartiality.  Here, I might tell a little background research on the drunken driver, showing that her first born child passed away, so she turned to drink for relief. When you follow proper MLA format and citing, you're also showing your Ethos.  You've got character enough to get it right, to cite where needed, to stick to format, so your argument progresses in a logical manner. 

Side Note: If you think that "fact," not argument, rules intelligent thinking, consider that at one point, the great minds of Western Europe firmly believed the Earth was flat. They assumed this was simply an uncontroversial fact. We can disagree now because people who believed the flat-earth argument as faulty set out to make a better argument and proved it. 

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Let's Talk about Research

I know.  I know!  You hate research.  What could be worse than finding yourself trapped in some musty library while all the other kids are out in the sunshine, playing Barbie, playing baseball, riding bikes.  The brutal, hard-core fact is this: there is no way out research.  It fulfills both the logos and the ethos of your work. It shows the world that you are truly an expert, that you have looked at your subject from different angles, especially the angles of others that came before you. 

How Much Research Do I Need?

As much as possible.  Now, I'm going to throw some numbers at you, but none of this is set in stone.  My English compadres are going to think I've gone batty for doing this, but this isn't for other professors.  This is for the student who cares about writing and wants to get as much out of English as possible.  I would say for a simple two or three page paper, you should have at least  two or three sources.  For larger papers, five to ten pages, at least five to ten sources should be used.  Believe me, when your essay is in your professors hands, besides that all important first paragraph, the first thing he or she looks at is what kind of research did my happy-go-lucky student do.  And if he or she sees two measly sources, one from Wikipedia and one form The American Heritage Dictionary, you are not getting that A or B you think you deserve.  You'll be lucky to get a C, actually.  I don't care how well you write.  Without research, your paper is a creative writing piece not a critical thinking piece.  Oh!  And while I'm on the subject, raise your right hand.  Go ahead, you heard me, raise your write hand.  Now, repeat after me:

I will never, ever use Wikipedia as a reference source.

Why?  Because even though research shows that Wikipedia is as accurate as the Encylopedia Brittanica, it is still basically an Internet encylopedia.  And we do not use encyclopedias in research papers.  Encylopedias were used back in 4th grade, not in college.  In college, we use books, juried journals, and websoures ok'd by your professor.

A critical thinker not only uses resources, but he also works with a plan.  He or she sets up an argument and works through this argument step by step.  As each step is taken the writer keeps in mind any counter-arguments that a reader or the opposition might have. 

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On the Thesis

Research papers: When I was in high school, I remember a certain sinking feeling in red ink that read: "You have not set up a proper argument." How true it was.   I did not know HOW.   I never had anyone teach it to me properly.  I now believe that most professors are so caught up in Rogerian argument, and Toulmin logic and Post-hoc reasoning that they forget how to express a simple idea.   And, ironically, the word "argument" comes from Latin from arguere, to make clear. 

These teachers had my head spinning with terms like "the minor premise of a syllogism," and "the inference that connects the claims to the grounds of Toulmin logic."  Don't get me wrong.  These are important.  A syllogism is the basis of deductive reasoning and Toulmin logic helps us structure our arguments to flow with everyday life, but what we really needed was innate clarity, not bigger words to add to our vocabulary.  I believe that if you can't bring a concept down to a 5th grade level, you don't truly understand that concept. 

So let's take a jab at our "thesis" and see if we can add a little clarity to this often misunderstood but most important concept.

In almost all of our research papers, regardless the mode (compare contrast, cause and effect, narration etc) we are either trying to argue a point or persuade a reader.

An argument takes a stand on a belief and convinces by offering points supported by evidence. Argumentation appeals primarily to reason.

Persuasion moves an audience toward a belief through appeals of emotion, reason, and ethics. 

But whether we are arguing or persuading we must start off with our thesis.

A thesis can be implied by the subtext, but it is usually stated in one sentence, covering two points:

1. The basic idea behind your paper. (you might even call this the "subject" of your paper.)
2. Your opinion of that idea.

And that is it!  Two parts: the basic idea behind your paper and your opinion of that basic idea.

Dogs make the best pets. (Dogs=basic idea or subject, make the best pets, your opinion.)

Rambo was the finest film ever made.

The band, "Three Dog Night" changed rock music.

Again, a thesis has two parts: Your subject and your opinion.

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Start with a working thesis
Sometimes, your thesis may not be complete until your paper is done.  So during the writing process you compose a "working thesis," the basic central idea upon which you base your paper.  Usually, your actual thesis will come when you are close to finishing your paper.  Near paper's end, your ideas will be focused, and you will be sure what direction your paper has taken.  You can then construct your true thesis.  Until then, use a working thesis.  Many times I've found that the working thesis doesn't have to be changed.

Now, for all you guys in the early stages of writing research papers, your thesis should come at the end of your first paragraph.  But if you have compiled a lot of information, it may come at the end of your second paragraph.  Later on, in upper division and grad school or in any research papers for journals, the thesis can go almost anywhere, even at the end of your paper.

What is a thesis again?
A thesis is a one-sentence statement of your central idea and your opinion.

It takes a stand, a side, on an argument or debatable issue.  
It narrows your topic to a single main idea.
It states an observation not just a fact.
It must be supportable with details and facts.

Never announce your thesis:
 
In this paper I decided to. . . .
In this paper I will examine. . . .
This essay will discuss. . . .

Let your thesis and your work announce your material.

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Supporting Material

You support your thesis with your researched evidence (Major Details).  Each piece of evidence is supported by specific or concrete details. 

Organization is very important here.  An outline is mandatory. 

I. Fast-food, chain restaurants draw people away from other restaurants, resulting in less individually owned establishments.

A. Restaurants cannot compete with the "chains":
         1.  Example of the Regent Diner (old fashioned local diner)
         2.  Example of Victorio's Pizza parlor

B. Fast food restaurants offer cheaper food in more convenient locations, with less of a wait. (story of having to find parking downtown and having to pay $25.00 for parking, having to wait for an hour to be seated, and then having to pay $35.00 and a tip for two burgers, fries, and cokes.  (You could add some research here on average costs or conveniences of fast food chains vs privately owned restaurants.)

II. Large portions of society are attracted to fast food through commercials and the draw of signage.
A. How many commercials per day run for McD's
       1.  Interview with 2 teenagers about where they prefer to eat
       2.  Mothers story on how she feeds her children
       3.  Time magazine article on fast food and our society

III. As fast food restaurants expand, they open in convienient locations, moving people away from downtown locations, and even helping to bankrupt downtowns.
1.  Example of Lakewood, New Jersey
2.  Example of Marietta, Georgian

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Let's take a peek at some interesting tidbits about writing essays

Definition vs. Distinction

I. Definition: What is definition?  Let's be voyeurs at a play:

Linda does not understand why Larry hates Portobello mushrooms.

Larry did not Define the meaning of the main term that might be misunderstood, especially the abstract:  words such as "terrible," "justice," "argument," "awful," are elastic terms and cannot be used without definition.

By the term "awful," Larry meant extremely bad or unpleasant.  It's not that Larry doesn't think portobellos taste like meat, it's that Larry hates the chewiness of mushrooms.  But we, as readers, do not know what is in Larry's head.

We have a major misunderstanding here.

The same goes for your argument:

When you offer a certain term that could be misunderstood, you must define that term.

Dictionary definitions:  be careful.  Do not list all definitions, only the one that pertains to your word.
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II. Distinction

When you define you say what's inside your term.  With "distinction," you say what's outside the limits of your term.

Lets look at how I would handle the word "argue."

By "argue" I am saying I "maintain" or "contend."  I distinguish this from "quarrel" or "bicker."

With definition you show what you mean: "maintain" or "contend."  But then, to clarify what I mean, I must distinguish "maintain" or "contend" from "quarrel" or "bicker."

So one of the keys to writing a good paper and a good argument is what I term "call-response."

Everytime we offer a statement we must define and distinguish that statement. 
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False Dichotomy

Someone who creates a distinction that doesn't exist.
 
Shimon argues the following: You're either a good student or a partier.

But Aryeh says, that's not true!  Shimon is creating a "False Dichotomy."  You can be both; you just can't do these at the same time.
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Strict Versus Loose Arguments

A loose argument merely maintains or asserts.

The addition of reasons distinguishes a "strict" argument from a "loose" argument. 

In strict arguments the claim is supported by reasons.

Jill argued that you should not drink too much coffee. (loose)
Sam argued that you should not drink too much coffee because it contains caffeine, a stimulant that raises blood pressure and causes fatigue. (strict)

The issue Sam argues is whether you should drink coffee.
The conclusion is that you should not drink coffee.
The reason is it raises BP and causes fatigue.

Don't vote for that crook!"
Public office requires honesty. Jones is dishonest. Therefore, Jones should not be elected to public office.

The Rhetorical Precis

Q: What is a Rhetorical Precis?
A: A precis is a highly structured four sentence paragraph that records the essential elements of an essay, including the name of the speaker/writer, the context of the delivery, the major assertion, the mode of development and/or support, the stated and/or apparent purpose, and the relationship established between the speaker/writer and the audience. Each of the four sentences requires specific information. Students are also encouraged to use brief quotations to convey a sense of style and tone.

Q: How do I write a Rhetorical Precis?
A: Each sentence of the paragraph should contain the following information:

First sentence: Name of author [optional: a phrase describing author], genre and title of work date in parentheses (additional publishing information in parentheses or note); a rhetorically accurate verb (such as "assert," "argue," suggest," "imply," "claim," etc.); and a THAT clause containing the major assertion (thesis statement) of the work. Think of it this way: WHO are you talking about? WHAT is their background? WHAT did they write? WHAT year was it written? WHAT is their point?

Second sentence: An explanation of the evidence and development the author uses to develop and/or support the thesis, usually in chronological order. Think of it this way: HOW do they prove their thesis? Do they offer interviews? Official data? Other outside sources? Anecdotes?

Third sentence: A statement of the author's apparent purpose followed by an "in order" phrase. Think of it this way: Are they trying to entertain you? Persuade you to feel a certain way or change your mind about an issue? Are they trying to inform you? Sharing information that teaches - ? WHY is that their purpose? In order to accomplish what?

Fourth sentence: A description of the intended audience and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience. Think of it this way: WHO is the author trying to address? For example, are they talking to teachers? parents? senior citizens? Latinos? Muslims? registered voters? It can be anyone. You need to determine if they are addressed formally (use of academic language, proper English) or informally (more conversational tone, use of slang, etc.).

Q: Does the precis need to be MLA formatted?
A: Yes, your precis and reading response should be formatted according to MLA rules, including creating a Works Cited page. 

Rhetorical Precis Worksheet
A rhetorical précis differs from a summary in that it is less neutral and more analytical of both the content and method of the original text.  If you think of a summary as primarily a brief representation of what a text says, then you might think of the rhetorical précis as a brief representation of what a text both says and does.  Although less common than a summary, a rhetorical precis is a particularly useful way to sum up your understanding of how a text works rhetorically (Reading Rhetorically 62).

The Structure of a Rhetorical Precis

Sentence One:  Name of the author, genre, and title of work, date in parentheses; a rhetorically active verb; and a THAT clause containing the major assertion or thesis in the text.
Sentence Two:  An explanation of how the author develops and supports the thesis.
Sentence Three:  A statement of the author's apparent purpose, followed by an "in order to" phrase.
Sentence Four:  A description of the intended audience and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience.

Rhetorical Precis Sentence Starters

Sentence One (Who/What?)
____________________________, in his (or her) _________________________, _____________________
        (Author)                        (A)                                    (vehicle used)                                           (Title)
______________________________________ that ___________________________________________
    (B) (rhetorically active verb)                                            "that" clause
_____________________________________________________________________________________ .

Sentence Two (How?)
____________________________ supports his/her _________________ by  ______________________
  (Author's Last Name)                                                      (B)                                       (C)

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Sentence Three (Why?)
The author's purpose is to _______________________________________________________________
                                                            (D)
________________________________ in order to / so that ____________________________________

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Sentence Four (To Whom?)
The author writes in a ______________________tone for ______________________________________.
                                                     (E)                                                    (audience)

More on the Rhetorical Precis

This article is from Dr. William P Banks

In 1988, Margaret Woodworth reported on a reading/writing method that demonstrated significant success with her students at various levels, particularly in their reading comprehension and preparation for using source materials in their own academic writing. That method, which Woodworth calls "the rhetorical precis," will be a central part of our writing this semester as we seek to know more about topics for our major projects. I reprint the basic outline here from Woodworth's article:

Sentence 1:
Name of author, [optional: a phrase describing the author], the genre and title of the work, date in parentheses (additional publishing information in parentheses or note), a rhetorically accurate verb (such as "assert," "argue," "suggest," "imply," "claim," etc.), and a THAT clause containing the major assertion (thesis statement) of the work.

Sentence 2:
An explanation of how the author develops and/or supports the thesis usually in chronological order.

Sentence 3:
A statement of the author's apparent purpose (why), followed by an "in order" phrase.

Sentence 4:
A description of the intended audience and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience. (54)

Woodworth included this example, as well, in her article:

Sheridan Baker, in his essay "Attitudes" (1966), asserts that writers' attitudes toward their subjects, their audiences, and themselves determine to a large extent the quality of their prose. Baker supports this assertion by showing examples of how inappropriate attitudes can make writing unclear, pompous, or boring, concluding that a good writer "will be respectful toward his audience, considerate toward his readers, and somehow amiable toward human failings" (58). His purpose is to make his readers aware of the dangers of negative attitudes in order to help them become better writers. He establishes an informal relationship with his audience of college students who are interested in learning to write "with conviction" (55).

Notice that Woodworth's example follows her pattern exactly. The first sentence identifies the author (Baker), the genre (essay), the title and date, and uses an active verb (asserts) and the relative pronoun that to explain what exactly Baker asserts. The second sentence explains the first by offering chronological examples from Baker's essay, while the third sentence suggests the author's purpose and WHY (in order to) he has set out that purpose (or seems to have set out that purpose -- not all essays are explicit about this information and readers have to put the pieces together). The final sentence identifies the primary audience of the essay (college students) and suggests how this audience is brought into/connected to the essay's purpose. (For some other examples, click here.)

And Even More on the Rhetorical Precis

Oregon State University Writing Program. "Sample Rhetorical Precis." Web. 04/01/2009.

Woodworth, Margaret K. "The Rhetorical Precis." Rhetoric Review 7 (1988): 156-164. Print.

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A quick note on the above Rhetorical Precis. 

I hate this type of writing.  Let's look at this first sentence:

Charles S. Peirce's article, "The Fixation of Belief (1877),asserts that humans have psychological and social mechanisms designed to protect and cement (or "fix") our beliefs.

Notice the verb: "asserts."  Now, find the subject.  Yes, it's "article." (No, it's not "The Fixation of Belief(1877); this is an appositive.)   Why isn't the subject the living, breathing writer, "Charles S. Pierce"?  Because this is the stuff of academe!  Instead of an active sentence, having a live human being doing the action, we find typical, academic, passive shite.  So how would we fix this sentence?  Two ways:

In his article, "The Fixation of Belief" (1877), Charles S. Peirce asserts that. . .

or

Charles S. Peirce, in his article, "the Fixation of Belief" (1877), asserts that

Notice what the answer is when, with these two sentences, you ask the question "Who or What asserts?"  The answer is Charles S Peirce--a real live, active human being.

Now lets try it with the orginal sentence:

Charles S. Peirce's article, "The Fixation of Belief (1877),asserts that

When you ask "Who or what asserts" here, your answer is "article." Article is your subject!  Charles S. Peirce has been relegated to another piece of information.  Get it?  You see why this is bad writing?

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